Proper Stewardship of the Dead at Saint Croix Island: An International Case Study

Abstract

In June of 2003, an international team of archeologists and anthropologists arrived on Saint Croix Island to rebury the remains of individuals from an ill-fated 17th-century settlement. Saint Croix Island, which lies on the Canadian border, was settled in 1604 by members of a French expedition led by Pierre Dugua, who had been granted oversight of Acadia (New France) by King Henry IV of France. Seventy-nine members of the expedition, including Samuel Champlain, passed the severe winter of 1604-1605 on the island. Thirty-five settlers died and were buried in a small island cemetery. Some human remains were selectively removed by archeologists in 1969 for further study.

Saint Croix Island is now managed by Acadia National Park. The island is of cultural significance to the Canadians and the French, and also lies within the ancestral lands of the Wabanaki people. Various ceremonies are planned in connection with the site's quadricentennial in 2004. The objective of the reburial project was to complete the respectful reinterment of the previously excavated human remains in their original locations. Also, additional forensic studies to answer questions about age, sex, race and pathologies of each individual were conducted in situ at the gravesites.

This paper outlines the following: 1) steps taken to consult with government officials from Canada, France, the Maine Tribes, Canada's First Nations, and the State of Maine to achieve consensus on the project; 2) the formation of creative scientific partnerships to undertake the research; and 3) meeting the logistical challenges of conducting fieldwork on a remote island accessible only by boat.

Introduction

French settlement in North America may be traced back to Saint Croix Island International Historic Site in Washington County, Maine. This island lies within lands traditionally occupied by the Passamaquoddy and other native peoples long before the French arrived. In 1604 members of a French expedition led by Pierre Dugua landed there, intending to colonize Acadia. Seventy-nine members of the expedition, including Samuel Champlain, passed the severe winter of 1604-1605 on the island. Thirty-five settlers died, apparently of scurvy, and were buried in a small island cemetery. In spring, 1605, the survivors left the island and founded the settlement of Port Royal, Nova Scotia.

The Saint Croix Island cemetery was discovered in 1950 by archeologist Wendell Hadlock. The cemetery was re-opened by archeologist Jacob Gruber in 1969, who exposed and partially documented 23 skeletons and removed two skulls, all mandibles (jaw bones) and select long bones for later analysis. A Temple University graduate student in physical anthropology, Thomas Crist, based a major part of his 1998 Ph.D. dissertation on an analysis of the Saint Croix Island bones. The bones were returned in 1995 to Acadia National Park. In late 2002, the decision was made by the National Park Service (NPS) to fund the reburial project and complete the fieldwork the following summer.

Government-to-Government Consultation

The objective of consultating others was to achieve consensus on the sensitive treatment of human remains on Saint Croix Island. Therefore, groups that had a cultural or historical connection to the island were consulted. The consultation process included government-to-government correspondence and formal meetings, as well as informal, ad hoc communications by email and telephone.

Acadia National Park, with support from the NPS regional office, began consultations in late 2002 with officials from Parks Canada. The basis for initiating discussions with Parks Canada stemmed from a Memorandum of Agreement (MOU) signed by the Department of the Interior and the Department of Environment Canada in 1982, calling for joint planning to commemorate the heritage of the Saint Croix Island International Historic Site. (The NPS and Parks Canada each have visitor facilities on both sides of the Saint Croix River within view of the island.) The Culture and Sport Secretariat in Fredericton, New Brunswick, was also contacted. After initial discussions, it was agreed that the NPS would draft an amendment to the MOU, formalizing the agreement to conduct the proposed reburial project.

Parks Canada concurred with the NPS proposal to rebury the human remains on Saint Croix Island, but requested that we also consult with the French Consulate in Moncton, New Brunswick. We had already contacted the French Consulate in Boston, notifying them of our intent to conduct the reburial project, and asking for feedback. We were informed by the French Consulate in Boston that it would be appropriate to work with the Consulate in Canada. The French government through the Moncton office gave approval for the project, but indicated that it was not necessary for them to sign an agreement to conduct the reburial. Ultimately, the MOU amendment for the reburial project was signed by the NPS Regional Director Marie Rust and her counterpart in Parks Canada, Carol Sheedy.

In the winter and spring of 2003, the staff at Acadia National Park met with the leaders and representatives of the federally recognized Maine Tribes and several of Canada's First Nations, known collectively as the Wabanaki people. These include the Passamaquoddy, Penobscot, Maliseet and Micmac groups. Numerous tribes and nations have cultural ties to the Saint Croix River, and previous archeological work had noted the presence of Native American artifacts on the island. However, the Passamaquoddy have perhaps the strongest enduring connection to the island itself-tribal members continue to visit the island to perform ceremonies up to the present day.

Officials from Parks Canada and the provincial government provided guidance on identifying the First Nations representatives that needed to be included in the decision-making process. They also helped to facilitate these connections. However, in the end, no one objected to the respectful reinterment of the French remains on the island.

The NPS also consulted officials in Maine, beginning with informal discussions with the Maine Historic Preservation Commission in 2002. Later, the scope of work for the forensic study was submitted for review to the Maine State Archeologist in early 2003.

Prior to the fieldwork, two VIP tours were conducted of Saint Croix Island to explain the method and extent of the excavations at the French cemetery. Several representatives from Parks Canada, the government of New Brunswick, the State of Maine, the Maine Tribes, and Canada's First Nations were in attendance. Also, private gravesite religious services were conducted in faiths historically represented on the island-French Huguenot and Roman Catholic-the day before the excavations began. Government officials from France, Canada, and the U.S. were in attendance. This event was coordinated by Acadia National Park staff.

Planning and Completion of Fieldwork

Conducting fieldwork on the Canadian border required coordination with a number of local, state, and federal agencies. The NPS notified the Maine State Medical Examiner of the intent to rebury human remains. The police and fire departments and hospital in Calais, Maine were apprised that a team of researchers would be working on the island. A project safety plan was completed that all field personnel were required to read. The U.S. Border Patrol and the Saint Croix International Waterway Commission in St. Stephen, New Brunswick were also informed.

The planning for the fieldwork was completed by the Cultural Resources Manager at Acadia, Lee Terzis, and two Principal investigators-Steven Pendery, NPS Senior Archeologist, and Thomas Crist, Assistant Professor at Utica College. Crist's familiarity with the previously excavated Saint Croix remains made him the ideal candidate to lead the forensic team. To facilitate this, Acadia set up a cooperative agreement with Utica College. Crist managed the forensic studies and placement of the previously excavated remains in their original locations within each gravesite. As an experienced historical archeologist, Pendery's role was to direct the fieldwork for the project as a whole.

The reburial project provided intriguing opportunities to form new scientific partnerships. In addition to Crist, Marcella Sorg, forensic anthropologist from the University of Maine and the State Medical Examiner's office; and Robert Larocque, bioarcheologist from Universite Laval in Quebec, completed the forensic team. Marcel Mousette, historical archeologist from Universite Laval and an expert on Champlain, also participated in the fieldwork.

In addition to the research team, field crewmembers came from the NPS regional office, Utica College, and the University of Maine. Six volunteers, mainly students, donated their time off to help excavate. Unfortunately, a delay in processing a visa application prevented a Canadiian volunteer from participating in the project.

Once the research team was selected, several logistical issues relating to security, access to the island, information sharing, and public relations needed to be resolved. The remote location of Saint Croix Island presented a few challenges. The Saint Croix River is a tidal estuary that empties into the Bay of Fundy. The tides vary 25 feet, and safe access to the island is extremely difficult at low tide. The grassy six-acre island is bordered by rugged cliffs and lies about three quarters of a mile from both the U.S. and Canadian shorelines. A steep wooden staircase leading from a small sandy beach at the south end provides the only access to the island. There is no electricity or running water. Signals from cell phones bounce randomly to towers in both Canada and the U.S., making communication from the island sporadic at best.

The lack of routine patrols by the Coast Guard meant that a boat needed to be kept on the island for safety reasons. The extreme variation in tides required that the boat be constantly monitored to prevent it from running aground. All boat operators attended the NPS Motorboat Operator Certification Course prior to the beginning of fieldwork, to ensure that passengers and equipment were transported to the island safely. Summers on the island often bring cool, foggy weather and gusty winds. Therefore, the fieldwork schedule fluctuated daily based on the tides and the weather.

In order to control access to the island and to protect the site, Acadia National Park issued a press release stating that Saint Croix Island would be closed for public use during the month of June. NPS personnel camped on the island nearly every night to ensure that no unauthorized personnel entered the site. Three tents, a shelter, and two portable toilets were erected on the island to accommodate staff and equipment. The research team stayed in nearby cabins on the mainland.

Photography was limited to those images taken by the project manager and principle investigators. Media access was also prohibited during the fieldwork. However, in the interest of providing accurate information about the reburial and other ongoing activities at Saint Croix Island, a press conference was held at a nearby community college. In addition, two special tours were conducted for government officials during the course of the fieldwork.

The reburial fieldwork was completed in just under a month. The excavation of the cemetery was conducted a few gravesites at a time. The previously excavated bones from the cemetery were transported from Acadia National Park headquarters in Bar Harbor by van to the boat ramp in Calais. All remains were wrapped and stored in boxes that were encased in water-proof plastic. The boxes were carefully loaded on the boat and brought to the island. After each individual had been fully exposed and studied by the forensic team, the missing bone was placed in its original location within the grave. The graves were then backfilled and the sod replaced. Additional topsoil and seed were later brought over by barge to level off the site.

Outcome and Accomplishments

It took extraordinary efforts by many people to complete the project successfully. Officials from the French Consulate, Parks Canada and the government of New Brunswick were very supportive of the project, and their expertise and guidance were of great value in the early stages. Additionally, NPS personnel donated additional hours, equipment, and logistical support for the project, above and beyond the cost of conducting the fieldwork. Mount Desert Island Hospital in Bar Harbor donated use of a new state-of-the-art CT scanner and the expertise of a skilled radiologist to scan some of the remains prior to the reburial. Assistance with boat transportation at a crucial point in the project was also provided by the Saint Croix International Waterway Commission. In short, a successful outcome would not have been achieved without the enthusiastic support and cooperation of many committed people who believed in the merits of the project.

The most interesting, and encouraging, outcome of the consultation process was that each nation wanted assurances that we had received positive feedback from the others. All wanted to avoid a course of action that would have been deemed objectionable to another group. The Tribal and First Nation representatives wanted assurances that we had consulted with the French; the French Consulate was equally concerned that the Tribes and First Nations were consulted about the project.

And finally, the data collected from the project will provide a glimpse into the lives of men that began with hope on one continent and ended in tragedy on another. A thorough study of bones and teeth will provide information on the age, race, diet, and pathologies of each person. During the fieldwork, a tooth was removed from each individual for DNA testing. Living donors of French ancestry have also volunteered to donate DNA for comparative samples. This research will be conducted by the DNA laboratory at Lakehead University in Canada, renowned for their work on the Titanic. The CT scan data will aid in facial reconstruction of one of the men, allowing scientists to literally recreate the face of history. Research team members are also busy exploring avenues for additional archival research in the historical archives at Ottawa and in France. Soil samples taken from the site will aid in environmental reconstruction, providing clues about 17th-century plants and animals that were native to the island or perhaps carried from across the sea.

Conclusion

The decision by the NPS to rebury human remains from the Saint Croix settlement of 1604 presented a myriad of opportunities and challenges. It combined two seemingly contradictory modes in the treatment of the dead-the ethics of reburial in a culturally sensitive manner with the science of a forensic examination. The primary goal was to respectfully return these 400-year-old remains to their final resting place-a wind-swept island that would later mark a boundary between nations. A secondary goal was to collect detailed forensic data on the earliest known group of 17th-century Europeans buried in North America. The need to achieve consensus on this approach with the Canadians, French, Maine Tribes and First Nations also created new friendships and opportunities for scientific collaboration.

Fortunately, Champlain kept a journal, giving us clues about life on Saint Croix Island during the bitter winter of 1604-5. We know that 35 people died, probably from scurvy, malnutrition and exposure, and the archeological record bears witness to this. Unfortunately, we do not know the names of the sailors, craftsmen, and noblemen who lost their lives and were buried far from home. The challenge was, and is, to find out who these men were, where they came from, and how they lived. It is hoped that this project will foster new cross-border relationships for years to come.